Emocje jako cecha i jako stan. Rozumienie i zastosowanie w psychoterapii

Krystian Hartmann

Streszczenie w języku polskim


W artykule opisano współzależności pomiędzy emocjami rozumianymi jako cechy oraz stany, podkreślając znaczenie tego rozróżnienia w kontekście psychoterapeutycznym. Emocje jako cechy to względnie stabilne w czasie tendencje, które predysponują jednostki do częstego odczuwania określonych emocji, podczas gdy emocje jako stany są tymczasową reakcją na konkretne bodźce. Psychologia osobowości często akcentuje cechy, natomiast psychologia społeczna i kliniczna częściej koncentrują się na stanach emocjonalnych. Integracja tych perspektyw tworzy ramę dla zrozumienia dynamicznej natury emocji. Cechy osobowości, takie jak neurotyczność i ekstrawersja, wpływają na doświadczenia emocjonalne, które są również modyfikowane przez kontekst sytuacyjny oraz procesy regulacyjne. Ich zrozumienie pozwala na podejmowanie interwencji terapeutycznych. Terapia Poznawczo-Behawioralna (CBT) oraz Terapia Akceptacji i Zaangażowania (ACT) pomagają skutecznie radzić sobie z trudnościami emocjonalnymi poprzez modyfikację sposobu myślenia i rozwijanie strategii zaradczych, szczególnie u osób z wysokim nasileniem neurotyzmu. Dodatkowo strategie wspierające zaangażowanie społeczne mogą przynosić korzyści osobom z niską ekstrawersją, sprzyjając tworzeniu sieci wsparcia i pozytywnych doświadczeń emocjonalnych. Ostatecznie w artykule podkreślono wagę uwzględniania zarówno cech, jak i stanów w kontekście psychoterapeutycznym, co pozwala klinicystom dostosowywać interwencje tak, by – po uwzględnieniu cech osobowości klienta/pacjenta – wspierały zarówno zmianę natychmiastowych reakcji emocjonalnych, jak i długofalową zmianę cech, co zwiększa skuteczność zapobiegania i leczenia zaburzeń emocjonalnych.


Słowa kluczowe


emocja; cecha; stan; psychoterapia; poznawczy; ACT; CBT

Pełny tekst:

PDF (English)

Bibliografia


Adolphs, R. (2010). Emotion. Current Biology, 20(13), 549–552. DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.05.046.

Adolphs, R., Anderson, D. J. (2018). The Neuroscience of Emotion: A New Synthesis. Princeton University Press.

Aguirre, P., Michelini, Y., Bravo, A. J., Pautassi, R. M., Pilatti, A. (2024). Association between Personality Traits and Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety via Emotional Regulation and Distress Tolerance. PLOS One, 19(7), e0306146. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0306146.

Allen, M. S., Mison, E. A., Robson, D. A., Laborde, S. (2021). Extraversion in Sport: A Scoping Review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 14(1), 229–259. DOI: 10.1080/1750984X.2020.1790024.

Allen, T. A., DeYoung, C. G. (2016). Personality Neuroscience and the Five Factor Model. In: T. A. Widiger (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of the Five Factor Model of Personality (Vol. 1; pp. 1–63). Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199352487.013.26.

Amirkhan, J. H., Risinger, R. T., Swickert, R. J. (1995). Extraversion: A “Hidden” Personality Factor in Coping? Journal of Personality, 63(2), 189–212. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.1995.tb00807.x.

Andreassen, C. S., Griffiths, M. D., Sinha, R., Hetland, J., Pallesen, S. (2016). The Relationships between Workaholism and Symptoms of Psychiatric Disorders: A Large-Scale Cross-Sectional Study. PLOS One, 11(5), e0152978. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152978.

Asendorpf, J. B., Wilpers, S. (1998). Personality Effects on Social Relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1531–1544. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1531.

Ashton, M. C., Lee, K. (2007). Empirical, Theoretical, and Practical Advantages of the HEXACO Model of Personality Structure. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11(2), 150–166. DOI: 10.1177/1088868306294907.

Baer, R. A. (2003). Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A Conceptual and Empirical Review. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 10(2), 125–143. DOI: 10.1093/clipsy/bpg015.

Baird, B. M., Le, K., Lucas, R. E. (2006). On the Nature of Intraindividual Personality Variability: Reliability, Validity, and Associations with Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(3), 512–527. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.3.512.

Balder, E. A. (2007). Introversion: Relationship with Mental Well-Being. Graduate Research Papers, 1–18.

Banozic, A., Miljkovic, A., Bras, M., Puljak, L., Kolcic, I., Hayward, C., Polasek, O. (2018). Neuroticism and Pain Catastrophizing Aggravate Response to Pain in Healthy Adults: An Experimental Study. Korean Journal of Pain, 31(1), 16–26. DOI: 10.3344/kjp.2018.31.1.16.

Barlow, D. H. (2000). Unraveling the Mysteries of Anxiety and Its Disorders from the Perspective of Emotion Theory. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1247–1263. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.11.1247.

Barlow, D. H., Farchione, T. J., Fairholme, C. P., Ellard, K. K., Boisseau, C. L., Allen, L. B., Ehrenreich May, J. T. (2010). Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/med:psych/9780199772667.001.0001.

Barlow, D. H., Sauer-Zavala, S., Carl, J. R., Bullis, J. R., Ellard, K. K. (2014). The Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Neuroticism: Back to the Future. Clinical Psychological Science, 2(3), 344–365. DOI: 10.1177/2167702613505532.

Barlow, D. H., Farchione, T. J., Bullis, J. R., Gallagher, M. W., Murray-Latin, H., Sauer-Zavala, S., Bentley, K. H., Thompson-Hollands, J., Conklin, L. R., Boswell, J. F., Ametaj, A., Carl, J. R., Boettcher, H. T., Cassiello-Robbins, C. (2017). The Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders Compared with Diagnosis-Specific Protocols for Anxiety Disorders. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(9), 875. DOI: 10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.2164.

Barrett, L. F., Adolphs, R., Marsella, S., Martinez, A. M., Pollak, S. D. (2019). Emotional Expressions Reconsidered: Challenges to Inferring Emotion from Human Facial Movements. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 20(1), 1–68. DOI: 10.1177/1529100619832930.

Bartko, J. J. (1966). The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient as a Measure of Reliability. Psychological Reports, 19(1), 3–11. DOI: 10.2466/pr0.1966.19.1.3.

Baumel, W. T., Lu, L., Huang, X., Drysdale, A. T., Sweeny, J. A., Gong, Q., Sylvester, C. M., Strawn, J. R. (2022). Neurocircuitry of Treatment in Anxiety Disorders. Biomarkers in Neuropsychiatry, 6, 100052. DOI: 10.1016/j.bionps.2022.100052.

Beck, A. T. (1991). Cognitive Therapy: A 30-Year Retrospective. American Psychologist, 46(4), 368–375. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.46.4.368.

Beck, A. T., Haigh, E. A. P. (2014). Advances in Cognitive Theory and Therapy: The Generic Cognitive Model. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 10(1), 1–24. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032813-153734.

Bennett-Levy, J. (2003). Mechanisms of Change in Cognitive Therapy: The Case of Automatic Thought Records and Behavioral Experiments. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 31(3), 261–277. DOI: 10.1017/S1352465803003035.

Bibbey, A., Carroll, D., Roseboom, T. J., Phillips, A. C., Rooij, S. R. de (2013). Personality and Physiological Reactions to Acute Psychological Stress. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90(1), 28–36. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012.10.018.

Bieling, P. J., Israeli, A. L., Antony, M. M. (2004). Is Perfectionism Good, Bad, or Both? Examining Models of the Perfectionism Construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 36(6), 1373–1385. DOI: 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00235-6.

Bishop, J., Shpaner, M., Kubicki, A., Naylor, M. (2021). Structural Neuroplasticity Following Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for the Treatment of Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial with Secondary MRI Outcomes. MedRxiv. DOI: 10.1101/2021.07.13.21260466.

Bleidorn, W., Schwaba, T., Zheng, A., Hopwood, C. J., Sosa, S. S., Roberts, B. W., Briley, D. A. (2022). Personality Stability and Change: A Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal Studies. Psychological Bulletin, 148(7–8), 588–619. DOI: 10.1037/bul0000365.

Bogg, T., Roberts, B. W. (2013). The Case for Conscientiousness: Evidence and Implications for a Personality Trait Marker of Health and Longevity. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 45(3), 278–288. DOI: 10.1007/s12160-012-9454-6.

Boudreaux, M. J., Ozer, D. J. (2013). Goal Conflict, Goal Striving, and Psychological Well-Being. Motivation and Emotion, 37(3), 433–443. DOI: 10.1007/s11031-012-9333-2.

Brandes, C. M., Tackett, J. L. (2019). Contextualizing Neuroticism in the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology. Journal of Research in Personality, 81, 238–245. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2019.06.007.

Brondolo, E., Brady, N., Thompson, S., Tobin, J. N., Cassells, A., Sweeney, M., Mcfarlane, D., Contrada, R. J. (2008). Perceived Racism and Negative Affect: Analyses of Trait and State Measures of Affect in a Community Sample. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(2), 150–173. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2008.27.2.150.

Canli, T., Sivers, H., Whitfield, S. L., Gotlib, I. H., Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Amygdala Response to Happy Faces as a Function of Extraversion. Science, 296(5576), 2191–2191. DOI: 10.1126/science.1068749.

Card, K. G., Skakoon-Sparling, S. (2023). Are Social Support, Loneliness, and Social Connection Differentially Associated with Happiness across Levels of Introversion-Extraversion? Health Psychology Open, 10(1), 1–14. DOI: 10.1177/20551029231184034.

Carleton, R. N. (2012). The Intolerance of Uncertainty Construct in the Context of Anxiety Disorders: Theoretical and Practical Perspectives. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics, 12(8), 937–947. DOI: 10.1586/ern.12.82.

Carter, N. T., Guan, L., Maples, J. L., Williamson, R. L., Miller, J. D. (2016). The Downsides of Extreme Conscientiousness for Psychological Well‐being: The Role of Obsessive Compulsive Tendencies. Journal of Personality, 84(4), 510–522. DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12177.

Carver, C. S., Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and Coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 61(1), 679–704. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100352.

Chaplin, W. F., John, O. P., Goldberg, L. R. (1988). Conceptions of States and Traits: Dimensional Attributes with Ideals as Prototypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(4), 541–557. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.541.

Chen, L., Qu, L., Hong, R. Y. (2022). Pathways Linking the Big Five to Psychological Distress: Exploring the Mediating Roles of Stress Mindset and Coping Flexibility. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(9), 2272. DOI: 10.3390/jcm11092272.

Chen, L., Liu, X., Weng, X., Huang, M., Weng, Y., Zeng, H., Li, Y., Zheng, D., Chen, C. (2023). The Emotion Regulation Mechanism in Neurotic Individuals: The Potential Role of Mindfulness and Cognitive Bias. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 896. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20020896.

Chopik, W., Lee, J. H. (2022). Dyadic Associations between Conscientiousness Facets, Health, and Health Behavior Over Time. Collabra: Psychology, 8(1), 1–18. DOI: 10.1525/collabra.37611.

Chorpita, B. F., Barlow, D. H. (1998). The Development of Anxiety: The Role of Control in the Early Environment. Psychological Bulletin, 124(1), 3–21. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.124.1.3.

Clark, D. A., Beck, A. T. (2010). Cognitive Theory and Therapy of Anxiety and Depression: Convergence with Neurobiological Findings. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14(9), 418–424. DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2010.06.007.

Clark, M. A., Michel, J. S., Zhdanova, L., Pui, S. Y., Baltes, B. B. (2016). All Work and No Play? A Meta-Analytic Examination of the Correlates and Outcomes of Workaholism. Journal of Management, 42(7), 1836–1873. DOI: 10.1177/0149206314522301.

Coleman, D. (2006). Client Personality, Working Alliance and Outcome. Social Work in Mental Health, 4(4), 83–98. DOI: 10.1300/J200v04n04_06.

Coleman, J. R. I., Lester, K. J., Roberts, S., Keers, R., Lee, S. hyuck, De Jong, S., Gaspar, H., Teismann, T., Wannemüller, A., Schneider, S., Jöhren, P., Margraf, J., Breen, G., Eley, T. C. (2017). Separate and Combined Effects of Genetic Variants and Pre-Treatment Whole Blood Gene Expression on Response to Exposure-Based Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry, 18(3), 215–226. DOI: 10.1080/15622975.2016.1208841.

Connor-Smith, J. K., Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between Personality and Coping: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(6), 1080–1107. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1080.

Côté, S., Moskowitz, D. S., Zuroff, D. C. (2012). Social Relationships and Intraindividual Variability in Interpersonal Behavior: Correlates of Interpersonal Spin. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 646–659. DOI: 10.1037/a0025313.

Denissen, J. J. A., Aken, M. A. G. van, Penke, L., Wood, D. (2013). Self‐Regulation Underlies Temperament and Personality: An Integrative Developmental Framework. Child Development Perspectives, 7(4), 255–260. DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12050.

Dennhag, I., Ybrandt, H., Sundström, A. (2017). The Relationship between Clients’ Personality Traits, Working Alliance and Therapy Outcome in a Training Context. Current Issues in Personality Psychology, 5(2), 132–142. DOI: 10.5114/cipp.2017.65244.

Diener, E., Larsen, R. J. (1984). Temporal Stability and Cross-Situational Consistency of Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive Responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 47(4), 871–883. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.47.4.871.

Dimidjian, S., Barrera, M., Martell, C., Muñoz, R. F., Lewinsohn, P. M. (2011). The Origins and Current Status of Behavioral Activation Treatments for Depression. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7(1), 1–38. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104535.

Duberstein, P. R., Ma, Y., Chapman, B. P., Conwell, Y., McGriff, J., Coyne, J. C., Franus, N., Heisel, M. J., Kaukeinen, K. A., Sörensen, S., Tu, X. M., Lyness, J. M. (2011). Detection of Depression in Older Adults by Family and Friends: Distinguishing Mood Disorder Signals from the Noise of Personality and Everyday Life. International Psychogeriatrics, 23(4), 634–643. DOI: 10.1017/S1041610210001808.

Dugas, M. J., Gagnon, F., Ladouceur, R., Freeston, M. H. (1998). Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Preliminary Test of a Conceptual Model. Behavior Research and Therapy, 36(2), 215–226. DOI: 10.1016/S0005-7967(97)00070-3.

Endler, N. S., Kocovski, N. L. (2001). State and Trait Anxiety Revisited. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 15(3), 231–245. DOI: 10.1016/S0887-6185(01)00060-3.

Feldman-Barrett, L. (2017). How Emotions Are Made: The Secret Life of the Brain. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Fleeson, W. (2001). Toward a Structure- and Process-Integrated View of Personality: Traits as Density Distributions of States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(6), 1011–1027. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.80.6.1011.

Fleeson, W., Jayawickreme, E. (2015). Whole Trait Theory. Journal of Research in Personality, 56, 82–92. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2014.10.009.

Flett, G. L., Hewitt, P. L., Heisel, M. J. (2014). The Destructiveness of Perfectionism Revisited: Implications for the Assessment of Suicide Risk and the Prevention of Suicide. Review of General Psychology, 18(3), 156–172. DOI: 10.1037/gpr0000011.

Fossati, P. (2012). Neural Correlates of Emotion Processing: From Emotional to Social Brain. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 22(Suppl. 3), 487–491. DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.008.

Frijda, N. H. (2008). The Psychologists’ Point of View. In: M. Lewis, J. Haviland-Jones, L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions (pp. 68–87). The Guilford Press.

Funder, D. C. (1995). On the Accuracy of Personality Judgment: A Realistic Approach. Psychological Review, 102(4), 652–670. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.102.4.652.

Galinsky, A. D., Ku, G., Wang, C. S. (2005). Perspective-Taking and Self-Other Overlap: Fostering Social Bonds and Facilitating Social Coordination. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 8(2), 109–124. DOI: 10.1177/1368430205051060.

Gebauer, J. E., Riketta, M., Broemer, P., Maio, G. R. (2008). Pleasure and Pressure Based Prosocial Motivation: Divergent Relations to Subjective Well-Being. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(2), 399–420. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2007.07.002.

Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation Intentions: Strong Effects of Simple Plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493–503. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.54.7.493.

Gollwitzer, P. M., Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement: A Meta‐Analysis of Effects and Processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69–119. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2601(06)38002-1.

Gotlib, I. H., Lewinsohn, P. M., Seeley, J. R. (1995). Symptoms Versus a Diagnosis of Depression: Differences in Psychosocial Functioning. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(1), 90–100. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.63.1.90.

Grant, A. M., Schwartz, B. (2011). Too Much of a Good Thing: The Challenge and Opportunity of the Inverted U. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(1), 61–76. DOI: 10.1177/1745691610393523.

Graziano, W. G., Eisenberg, N. (1997). Agreeableness: A Dimension of Personality. In: R. Hogan, J. A. Johnson, S. R. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Psychology (pp. 795–824). Academic Press. DOI: 10.1016/B978-012134645-4/50031-7.

Graziano, W. G., Tobin, R. M. (2002). Agreeableness: Dimension of Personality or Social Desirability Artifact? Journal of Personality, 70(5), 695–728. DOI: 10.1111/1467-6494.05021.

Graziano, W. G., Jensen-Campbell, L. A., Hair, E. C. (1996). Perceiving Interpersonal Conflict and Reacting to It: The Case for Agreeableness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(4), 820–835. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.4.820.

Gross, J. J. (2013). Emotion Regulation: Taking Stock and Moving Forward. Emotion, 13(3), 359–365. DOI: 10.1037/a0032135.

Gross, J. J., John, O. P. (2003). Individual Differences in Two Emotion Regulation Processes: Implications for Affect, Relationships, and Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348.

Harmon-Jones, C., Bastian, B., Harmon-Jones, E. (2016). The Discrete Emotions Questionnaire: A New Tool for Measuring State Self-Reported Emotions. PLOS One, 11(8), 1–25. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159915.

Hartmann, K. (2025). Emocja jako cecha. Identyfikacja i walidacja pięcioczynnikowego modelu dyspozycji afektywnych. Wydawnictwo Academicon. DOI: 10.52097/acapress.9788367833448.

Hayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G. (2021). “Third‐Wave” Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies and the Emergence of a Process‐Based Approach to Intervention in Psychiatry. World Psychiatry, 20(3), 363–375. DOI: 10.1002/wps.20884.

Hayu, E. (2017). Personality and Emotion Regulation Strategies. International Journal of Psychological Research, 10(1), 53–60. DOI: 10.21500/20112084.2040.

Hewitt, P. L., Flett, G. L. (1991). Perfectionism in the Self and Social Contexts: Conceptualization, Assessment, and Association with Psychopathology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(3), 456–470. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.456.

Hill, A. P., Curran, T. (2016). Multidimensional Perfectionism and Burnout: A Meta-Analysis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 20(3), 269–288. DOI: 10.1177/1088868315596286.

Hill, C. E., Knox, S. (2009). Processing the Therapeutic Relationship. Psychotherapy Research, 19(1), 13–29. DOI: 10.1080/10503300802621206.

Hill, P. L., Roberts, B. W. (2011). The Role of Adherence in the Relationship between Conscientiousness and Perceived Health. Health Psychology, 30(6), 797–804. DOI: 10.1037/a0023860.

Hill, P. L., Olaru, G., Allemand, M. (2024). Examining Sense of Purpose and Conscientiousness as Unique Correlates of Health: A Bifactor Examination. Journal of Health Psychology, 29(11), 1195–1209. DOI: 10.1177/13591053241226814.

Hopko, D. R., Lejuez, C. W., Ruggiero, K. J., Eifert, G. H. (2003). Contemporary Behavioral Activation Treatments for Depression: Procedures, Principles, and Progress. Clinical Psychology Review, 23(5), 699–717. DOI: 10.1016/S0272-7358(03)00070-9.

Hu, Y., Wang, Z., Fan, Q. (2022). The Relationship between Conscientiousness and Well-Being among Chinese Undergraduate Students: A Cross-Lagged Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(20), 13565. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013565.

Hudson, N. W., Fraley, R. C. (2015). Volitional Personality Trait Change: Can People Choose to Change Their Personality Traits? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(3), 490–507. DOI: 10.1037/pspp0000021.

Izard, C. E. (2009). Emotion Theory and Research: Highlights, Unanswered Questions, and Emerging Issues. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 1–25. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163539.

Jensen‐Campbell, L. A., Graziano, W. G. (2001). Agreeableness as a Moderator of Interpersonal Conflict. Journal of Personality, 69(2), 323–362. DOI: 10.1111/1467-6494.00148.

John, O. P., Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five Trait Taxonomy: History, Measurement, and Theoretical Perspectives. In: L. A. Pervin, O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research (Vol. 2; pp. 102–138). Guilford Press.

Joseph, J. F., Tural, U., Joseph, N. D., Mendoza, T. E., Patel, E., Reifer, R., Deregnaucourt, M. (2025). Understanding High-Functioning Depression in Adults. Cureus, 17(2), e78891. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.78891.

Karoly, P. (1993). Mechanisms of Self-Regulation: A Systems View. Annual Review of Psychology, 44(1), 23–52. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.44.1.23.

Kashdan, T. B., Rottenberg, J. (2010). Psychological Flexibility as a Fundamental Aspect of Health. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(7), 865–878. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.001.

Kazdin, A. E. (2007). Mediators and Mechanisms of Change in Psychotherapy Research. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 3(1), 1–27. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091432.

Kim, E. S., Dedrick, R. F., Cao, C., Ferron, J. M. (2016). Multilevel Factor Analysis: Reporting Guidelines and a Review of Reporting Practices. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 51(6), 881–898. DOI: 10.1080/00273171.2016.1228042.

Kitayama, S., Park, J. (2021). Is Conscientiousness Always Associated with Better Health? A U.S.–Japan Cross-Cultural Examination of Biological Health Risk. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 47(3), 486–498. DOI: 10.1177/0146167220929824.

Klein, D. N., Kotov, R., Bufferd, S. J. (2011). Personality and Depression: Explanatory Models and Review of the Evidence. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7(1), 269–295. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104540.

Kobylińska, D., Zajenkowski, M., Lewczuk, K., Jankowski, K. S., Marchlewska, M. (2022). The Mediational Role of Emotion Regulation in the Relationship between Personality and Subjective Well-Being. Current Psychology, 41(6), 4098–4111. DOI: 10.1007/s12144-020-00861-7.

Komulainen, E., Meskanen, K., Lipsanen, J., Lahti, J. M., Jylhä, P., Melartin, T., Wichers, M., Isometsä, E., Ekelund, J. (2014). The Effect of Personality on Daily Life Emotional Processes. PLOS One, 9(10), e110907. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110907.

Korotitsch, W. J., Nelson-Gray, R. O. (1999). An Overview of Self-Monitoring Research in Assessment and Treatment. Psychological Assessment, 11(4), 415–425. DOI: 10.1037/1040-3590.11.4.415.

Kotov, R., Gamez, W., Schmidt, F., Watson, D. (2010). Linking “Big” Personality Traits to Anxiety, Depressive, and Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136(5), 768–821. DOI: 10.1037/a0020327.

Kouser, S., Hanif, R., Saeed, W. (2022). Impact of Introversion and Extroversion on Psychological Wellbeing of University Students during Covid-19. Journal of Educational Research & Social Sciences Review, 2(4), 18–22.

Kunas, S. L., Yang, Y., Straube, B., Kircher, T., Gerlach, A. L., Pfleiderer, B., Arolt, V., Wittmann, A., Stroehle, A., Wittchen, H.-U., Lueken, U. (2019). The Impact of Depressive Comorbidity on Neural Plasticity Following Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 451–460. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.026.

Kuppens, P., Verduyn, P. (2017). Emotion Dynamics. Current Opinion in Psychology, 17, 22–26. DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.06.004.

Laursen, B., Pulkkinen, L., Adams, R. (2002). The Antecedents and Correlates of Agreeableness in Adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 38(4), 591–603. DOI: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.591.

Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of Emotion. American Psychologist, 46(8), 819–834. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.46.8.819.

LeDoux, J. (2023). The Deep History of Ourselves: The Four-Billion-Year Story of How We Got Conscious Brains. Philosophical Psychology, 36(4), 704–715. DOI: 10.1080/09515089.2022.2160311.

Lester, K. J., Eley, T. C. (2013). Therapygenetics: Using Genetic Markers to Predict Response to Psychological Treatment for Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 3(1), 1–16. DOI: 10.1186/2045-5380-3-4.

Liversage, C., Wissing, M. P., Schutte, L. (2023). Promotion of Well-Being in Work and Interpersonal Relationships: A Scoping Review of Goals and Meaning Interventions. International Journal of Wellbeing, 13(3), 94–110. DOI: 10.5502/ijw.v13i3.2941.

Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705–717. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.705.

Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Côté, S., Beers, M. (2005). Emotion Regulation Abilities and the Quality of Social Interaction. Emotion, 5(1), 113–118. DOI: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.113.

Mack, D. E., Gunnell, K. E., Wilson, P. M., Wierts, C. (2017). Well-Being in Group-Based Exercise Classes: Do Psychological Need Fulfillment and Interpersonal Supports Matter? Applied Research in Quality of Life, 12(1), 89–102. DOI: 10.1007/s11482-016-9454-y.

Magidson, J. F., Roberts, B. W., Collado-Rodriguez, A., Lejuez, C. W. (2014). Theory-Driven Intervention for Changing Personality: Expectancy Value Theory, Behavioral Activation, and Conscientiousness. Developmental Psychology, 50(5), 1442–1450. DOI: 10.1037/a0030583.

Mallinckrodt, B. (2010). The Psychotherapy Relationship as Attachment: Evidence and Implications. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(2), 262–270. DOI: 10.1177/0265407509360905.

Malouff, J. M., Thorsteinsson, E. B., Schutte, N. S., Bhullar, N., Rooke, S. E. (2010). The Five-Factor Model of Personality and Relationship Satisfaction of Intimate Partners: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 44(1), 124–127. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2009.09.004.

Margolis, S., Lyubomirsky, S. (2020). Experimental Manipulation of Extraverted and Introverted Behavior and Its Effects on Well-Being. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 149(4), 719–731. DOI: 10.1037/xge0000668.

Mather, M., Sutherland, M. R. (2011). Arousal-Biased Competition in Perception and Memory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6(2), 114–133. DOI: 10.1177/1745691611400234.

Mazzucchelli, T. G., Kane, R. T., Rees, C. S. (2010). Behavioral Activation Interventions for Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Positive Psychology, 5(2), 105–121. DOI: 10.1080/17439760903569154.

McCrae, R. R., Costa, Jr., P. T., Martin, T. A. (2005). The NEO–PI–3: A More Readable Revised NEO Personality Inventory. Journal of Personality Assessment, 84(3), 261–270. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8403_05.

McGraw, K. O., Wong, S. P. (1996). Forming Inferences about Some Intraclass Correlation Coefficients. Psychological Methods, 1(1), 30–46. DOI: 10.1037/1082-989X.1.1.30.

McManus, F., Van Doorn, K., Yiend, J. (2012). Examining the Effects of Thought Records and Behavioral Experiments in Instigating Belief Change. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 43(1), 540–547. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.07.003.

Meier, B. P., Robinson, M. D., Wilkowski, B. M. (2006). Turning the Other Cheek: Agreeableness and the Regulation of Aggression-Related Primes. Psychological Science, 17(2), 136–142. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01676.x.

Merz, E. L., Roesch, S. C. (2011). Modeling Trait and State Variation Using Multilevel Factor Analysis with PANAS Daily Diary Data. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(1), 2–9. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2010.11.003.

Mischel, W. (2004). Toward an Integrative Science of the Person. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(1), 1–22. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.55.042902.130709.

Mischel, W., Shoda, Y. (1995). A Cognitive-Affective System Theory of Personality: Reconceptualizing Situations, Dispositions, Dynamics, and Invariance in Personality Structure. Psychological Review, 102(2), 246–268. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.102.2.246.

Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., Caspi, A. (2011). A Gradient of Childhood Self-Control Predicts Health, Wealth, and Public Safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 2693–2698. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1010076108.

Neff, K. D., Rude, S. S., Kirkpatrick, K. L. (2007). An Examination of Self-Compassion in Relation to Positive Psychological Functioning and Personality Traits. Journal of Research in Personality, 41(4), 908–916. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2006.08.002.

Oatley, K., Gerrod Parrott, W., Smith, C., Watts, F. (2011). Cognition and Emotion Over Twenty-Five Years. Cognition and Emotion, 25(8), 1341–1348. DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2011.622949.

Ode, S., Robinson, M. D. (2009). Can Agreeableness Turn Gray Skies Blue? A Role for Agreeableness in Moderating Neuroticism-Linked Dysphoria. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(4), 436–462. DOI: 10.1521/jscp.2009.28.4.436.

Ormel, J., Jeronimus, B. F., Kotov, R., Riese, H., Bos, E. H., Hankin, B., Rosmalen, J. G. M., Oldehinkel, A. J. (2013). Neuroticism and Common Mental Disorders: Meaning and Utility of a Complex Relationship. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(5), 686–697. DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2013.04.003.

Öhman, A., Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, Phobias, and Preparedness: Toward an Evolved Module of Fear and Fear Learning. Psychological Review, 108(3), 483–522. DOI: 10.1037/0033-295X.108.3.483.

Padesky, C. A. (1994). Schema Change Processes in Cognitive Therapy. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 1(5), 267–278. DOI: 10.1002/cpp.5640010502.

Papies, E. K., Barsalou, L. W., Custers, R. (2012). Mindful Attention Prevents Mindless Impulses. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 3(3), 291–299. DOI: 10.1177/1948550611419031.

Petric, D. (2022). The Introvert-Ambivert-Extrovert Spectrum. Open Journal of Medical Psychology, 11(3), 103–111. DOI: 10.4236/ojmp.2022.113008.

Pilkington, P., Younan, R., Bishop, A. (2021). Early Maladaptive Schemas, Suicidal Ideation, and Self-Harm: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Affective Disorders Reports, 3, 100051. DOI: 10.1016/j.jadr.2020.100051.

Polivy, J., Herman, C. P. (2002). If at First You Don’t Succeed: False Hopes of Self-Change. American Psychologist, 57(9), 677–689. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.57.9.677.

Polk, D. E., Cohen, S., Doyle, W. J., Skoner, D. P., Kirschbaum, C. (2005). State and Trait Affect as Predictors of Salivary Cortisol in Healthy Adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30(3), 261–272. DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.08.004.

Purnamaningsih, E. H. (2017). Personality and Emotion Regulation Strategies. International Journal of Psychological Research, 10(1), 53–60. DOI: 10.21500/20112084.2040.

Reise, S. P., Ventura, J., Nuechterlein, K. H., Kim, K. H. (2005). An Illustration of Multilevel Factor Analysis. Journal of Personality Assessment, 84(2), 126–136. DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa8402_02.

Reizer, A., Harel, T., Ben-Shalom, U. (2023). Helping Others Results in Helping Yourself: How Well-Being Is Shaped by Agreeableness and Perceived Team Cohesion. Behavioral Sciences, 13(2), 150. DOI: 10.3390/bs13020150.

Renner, F., Lobbestael, J., Peeters, F., Arntz, A., Huibers, M. (2012). Early Maladaptive Schemas in Depressed Patients: Stability and Relation with Depressive Symptoms Over the Course of Treatment. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136(3), 581–590. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.027.

Roberts, B., Kuncel, N. R., Shiner, R., Caspi, A., Goldberg, L. R. (2007). The Power of Personality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2(4), 313–345. DOI: 10.1136/bmj.2.3584.509.

Roberts, B. W., Luo, J., Briley, D. A., Chow, P. I., Su, R., Hill, P. L. (2017). A Systematic Review of Personality Trait Change through Intervention. Psychological Bulletin, 143(2), 117–141. DOI: 10.1037/bul0000088.

Roesch, S. C., Aldridge, A. A., Stocking, S. N., Villodas, F., Leung, Q., Bartley, C. E., Black, L. J. (2010). Multilevel Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling of Daily Diary Coping Data: Modeling Trait and State Variation. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 45(5), 767–789. DOI: 10.1080/00273171.2010.519276.

Rosmalen, J. G. M., Neeleman, J., Gans, R. O. B., Jonge, P. de (2007). The Association between Neuroticism and Self-Reported Common Somatic Symptoms in a Population Cohort. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 62(3), 305–311. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.10.014.

Russell, J. A., Feldman Barrett, L. (1999). Core Affect, Prototypical Emotional Episodes, and Other Things Called Emotion: Dissecting the Elephant. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(5), 805–819.

Saucier, G., Bel-Bahar, T., Fernandez, C. (2007). What Modifies the Expression of Personality Tendencies? Defining Basic Domains of Situation Variables. Journal of Personality, 75(3), 479–503. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00446.x.

Scherer, K. R. (2009). The Dynamic Architecture of Emotion: Evidence for the Component Process Model. Cognition and Emotion, 23(7), 1307–1351. DOI: 10.1080/02699930902928969.

Schneider, T. R., Rench, T. A., Lyons, J. B., Riffle, R. R. (2012). The Influence of Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness on Stress Responses. Stress and Health, 28(2), 102–110. DOI: 10.1002/smi.1409.

Shafran, R., Mansell, W. (2001). Perfectionism and Psychopathology: A Review of Research and Treatment. Clinical Psychology Review, 21(6), 879–906. DOI: 10.1016/S0272-7358(00)00072-6.

Shiffman, S., Stone, A. A., Hufford, M. R. (2008). Ecological Momentary Assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 4(1), 1–32. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.3.022806.091415.

Shoda, Y., Smith, R. E. (2004). Conceptualizing Personality as a Cognitive-Affective Processing System: A Framework for Models of Maladaptive Behavior Patterns and Change. Behavior Therapy, 35(1), 147–165. DOI: 10.1016/S0005-7894(04)80009-1.

Shoda, Y., Mischel, W., Wright, J. C. (1994). Intraindividual Stability in the Organization and Patterning of Behavior: Incorporating Psychological Situations into the Idiographic Analysis of Personality. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67(4), 674–687. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.674.

Soto, C. J. (2016). The Little Six Personality Dimensions from Early Childhood to Early Adulthood: Mean‐Level Age and Gender Differences in Parents’ Reports. Journal of Personality, 84(4), 409–422. DOI: 10.1111/jopy.12168.

Soto, C. J. (2019). How Replicable Are Links Between Personality Traits and Consequential Life Outcomes? The Life Outcomes of Personality Replication Project. Psychological Science, 30(5), 711–727. DOI: 10.1177/0956797619831612.

Spielberger, C. D., Reheiser, E. C. (2004). Measuring Anxiety, Anger, Depression, and Curiosity as Emotional States and Personality Traits with the STAI, STAXI, and STPI. In: M. J. Hilsenroth, D. L. Segal (Eds.), Comprehensive Handbook of Psychological Assessment: Personality Assessment (pp. 70–86). John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Spielberger, C. D., Sarason, I. G. (2005). Stress and Emotion: Anxiety, Anger, and Curiosity. Routledge.

Stoeber, J., Otto, K. (2006). Positive Conceptions of Perfectionism: Approaches, Evidence, Challenges. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(4), 295–319. DOI: 10.1207/s15327957pspr1004_2.

Stone, A. A., Shiffman, S. (1994). Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) in Behavioral Medicine. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 16(3), 199–202. DOI: 10.1093/abm/16.3.199.

Stone, A. A., Shiffman, S., Atienza, A. A., Nebeling, L. (Eds.). (2007). The Science of Real-Time Data Capture. Oxford University Press.

Tang, T. Z., DeRubeis, R. J. (1999). Sudden Gains and Critical Sessions in Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67(6), 894–904. DOI: 10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.894.

Tao, Y., Liu, X., Hou, W., Niu, H., Wang, S., Ma, Z., Bi, D., Zhang, L. (2022). The Mediating Role of Emotion Regulation Strategies in the Relationship between Big Five Personality Traits and Anxiety and Depression among Chinese Firefighters. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, 1–8. DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.901686.

Thimm, J. C. (2010). Personality and Early Maladaptive Schemas: A Five-Factor Model Perspective. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 41(4), 373–380. DOI: 10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.03.009.

Turiano, N. A., Whiteman, S. D., Hampson, S. E., Roberts, B. W., Mroczek, D. K. (2012). Personality and Substance Use in Midlife: Conscientiousness as a Moderator and the Effects of Trait Change. Journal of Research in Personality, 46(3), 295–305. DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2012.02.009.

VandenBos, G. R. (2015). APA Dictionary of Psychology. American Psychological Association.

Verduyn, P., Brans, K. (2012). The Relationship between Extraversion, Neuroticism and Aspects of Trait Affect. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(6), 664–669. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.017.

Vittengl, J. R. (2017). Who Pays the Price for High Neuroticism? Moderators of Longitudinal Risks for Depression and Anxiety. Psychological Medicine, 47(10), 1794–1805. DOI: 10.1017/S0033291717000253.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A. (1991). Self- Versus Peer Ratings of Specific Emotional Traits: Evidence of Convergent and Discriminant Validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(6), 927–940. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.60.6.927.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 1063–1070. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.

Weick, K. E. (1984). Small Wins: Redefining the Scale of Social Problems. American Psychologist, 39(1), 40–49. DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.40.

Whiteley, C. (2021). Depression as a Disorder of Consciousness. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 76(3), 383–398. DOI: 10.1086/716838.

Widiger, T. A., Samuel, D. B. (2005). Diagnostic Categories or Dimensions? A Question for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – Fifth Edition. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114(4), 494–504. DOI: 10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.494.

Wilmot, M. P., Ones, D. S. (2019). A Century of Research on Conscientiousness at Work. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(46), 23004–23010. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1908430116.

Wilt, J., Revelle, W. (2019). The Big Five, Everyday Contexts and Activities, and Affective Experience. Personality and Individual Differences, 136, 140–147. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2017.12.032.

Wood, A. M., Maltby, J., Stewart, N., Linley, P. A., Joseph, S. (2008). A Social-Cognitive Model of Trait and State Levels of Gratitude. Emotion, 8(2), 281–290. DOI: 10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.281.

Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., Maltby, J. (2009). Gratitude Predicts Psychological Well-Being Above the Big Five Facets. Personality and Individual Differences, 46(4), 443–447. DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.11.012.

Yang, J., Mao, Y., Niu, Y., Wei, D., Wang, X., Qiu, J. (2020). Individual Differences in Neuroticism Personality Trait in Emotion Regulation. Journal of Affective Disorders, 265, 468–474. DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2020.01.086.

Yoon, K. L., Maltby, J., Joormann, J. (2013). A Pathway from Neuroticism to Depression: Examining the Role of Emotion Regulation. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 26(5), 558–572. DOI: 10.1080/10615806.2012.734810.

Young, S. N., Rot, M. aan het, Pinard, G., Moskowitz, D. S. (2007). The Effect of Tryptophan on Quarrelsomeness, Agreeableness, and Mood in Everyday Life. International Congress Series, 1304, 133–143. DOI: 10.1016/j.ics.2007.07.037.

Zelenski, J. M., Larsen, R. J. (2000). The Distribution of Basic Emotions in Everyday Life: A State and Trait Perspective from Experience Sampling Data. Journal of Research in Personality, 34(2), 178–197. DOI: 10.1006/jrpe.1999.2275.

Zelenski, J. M., Sobocko, K., Whelan, D. C. (2013). Introversion, Solitude, and Subjective Well‐Being. In: R. Coplan, J. Bowker (Eds.), The Handbook of Solitude (pp. 184–201). Wiley. DOI: 10.1002/9781118427378.ch11.




DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17951/j.2026.39.1.7-36
Data publikacji: 2026-05-06 09:42:38
Data złożenia artykułu: 2025-02-23 02:04:55


Statystyki


Widoczność abstraktów - 0
Pobrania artykułów (od 2020-06-17) - PDF (English) - 0

Wskaźniki



Odwołania zewnętrzne

  • Brak odwołań zewnętrznych


Prawa autorskie (c) 2026 Krystian Hartmann

Creative Commons License
Powyższa praca jest udostępniana na lcencji Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.